EL SUSTANTIVO
Nouns
These lessons look at the variety of
ways nouns are used in sentences.
- Rules of
Pluralization
- Words With Two
Genders
- Words That Break the Gender 'Rule'
- Using
Infinitives as Nouns
- Words of
Ambiguous Gender
·
If you know how to make nouns plural in English, you're close to knowing
how to do so in Spanish.
·
The
basic principle is the same: In Spanish, plurals end with the letter s,
as is usually the case in English. Spanish plurals usually have an
unaccented vowel preceding the s, as is often the case in
English.
·
Basic Rule
·
In fact, if you can remember that the Spanish plural is formed by making
sure the plural word ends with s preceded by an unaccented vowel,
usually e, you've taken care of nearly all of what you'll have to
learn. Most of what's left is learning the few exceptions as well as the
spelling changes needed to make the written form of the language conform to
what is spoken.
·
The
basic rule is this: If a
word ends in anything other than an s preceded by an unstressed
vowel, add either s or es to the end of the word so
that it does. In some cases, a spelling change is needed to maintain the sound
that would be needed to follow this rule.
·
Here's
how the rule is applied in various cases:
·
Words
ending in an unstressed vowel:
·
Add the letter s.
·
Examples: el libro, the book, los
libros, the books; el gemelo, the twin, los gemelos,
the twins; el pato, the duck, los patos, the ducks.
·
Words ending in a stressed vowel:
·
Add the letters es.
·
Examples: el tisú, the tissue, los
tisúes, the tissues; el hindú, the Hindu, los
hindúes, the Hindus.
·
Words ending in a consonant:
·
Add the letters es.
·
Examples: el
escultor, the sculptor, los escultores, the sculptors; la
sociedad, the society, las sociedades, the societies; el
azul, the blue one, los azules, the blue ones; el
mes, the month, los meses, the months.
·
Note: Y is treated as a
consonant for this rule. la ley, the law, las leyes,
the laws.
·
Words ending in s preceded by an unstressed vowel:
·
The plural form is the same as the singular form.
·
Examples: el lunes, Monday,
los lunes, Mondays; el rompecabezas, the puzzle, los
rompecabezas, the puzzles; la crisis, the crisis, las
crisis, the crises.
·
The Exceptions
·
Exceptions to the above rules are few. Here are the most common ones:
·
Words ending in é:
·
Simply add an s.
·
Example: el café, the coffeehouse,
los cafés, the coffeehouses.
·
Foreign words:
·
Some foreign words maintain the pluralization rules of the originating
language.
·
Examples:
los jeans, the jeans; el
camping, the campground, los campings, campgrounds; el
curriculum vitae, the résumé, los curricula vitae, the
résumés.
·
Specific exceptions:
·
A few words simply don't follow the rules.
·
Examples: el papá, the father,
los papás, the fathers; la mamá, the mother, las
mamás, the mothers; el sofá, the couch, los sofás,
the couches.
·
Orthographic Changes
·
Changes
in either spelling or accents are needed sometimes due to the phonetic nature
of the Spanish language. The rules above still apply — you just need to make
sure a plural word is spelled the way it is pronounced, or that it is spelled
according to Spanish convention. Here are the orthographic
changes sometimes required:
·
Words ending in z:
·
Change the ending zes to ces.
·
Examples: el
pez, the fish, los peces, the fishes; el juez,
the judge, los jueces, the judges.
·
Words ending in an accented vowel followed by s or n:
·
Eliminate the accent in the plural.
·
Examples: el interés, the interest,
los intereses, the interests; el francés, the
Frenchman, los franceses, the Frenchmen; el avión,
the airplane, los aviones, the airplanes.
·
Words ending in n in an unstressed syllable:
·
Add an accent to the appropriate vowel to maintain the correct stress.
·
Examples: el examen, the
exam, los exámenes, the exams; el crimen, the
crime, los crímenes, the crimes.
Nearly all nouns in Spanish are always
masculine or always feminine. But there are a few nouns that can be either.
In most cases, those are the nouns
describing what people do, and the gender varies with the person the word
stands for. Thus, for example, el dentista refers to a male dentist,
while la dentista refers to a female dentist. Un artista is a
male artist, while una artista is a female artist. Most, but not all, of
the occupational words that follow this pattern end in -ista. One that
doesn't is atleta: un atleta is a male athlete, while una
atleta is a female athlete.
But there are a few nouns where the
matter of gender is more complicated. Those are the nouns whose meanings vary
depending on the gender of articles or adjectives used with them. In most
cases, there's no immediately obvious reason why one meaning has developed with
the masculine gender and another meaning for the feminine, so the only way to
learn them is to memorize them or use them until you know them.
Following is a list of the most common
such words. Only the basic or most usual meanings are included here; consult a
dictionary for more thorough definitions.
- batería: el batería
= male drummer; la batería = battery, female drummer
- busca: el busca
= pager (electronic device); la busca = search
- capital: el capital
= financial capital; la capital = capital city, capital letter
- cólera: el cólera
= cholera; la cólera = anger
- coma: el coma
= coma; la coma = comma
- cometa: el cometa
= comet; la cometa = kite
- consonante: el
consonante = rhyme; la consonante = consonant
- corte: el corte
= cut, blade; la corte = court (law)
- cura: el cura
= Catholic priest; la cura = cure
- delta: el delta
= delta (of a river); la delta = delta (Greek letter)
- doblez: el doblez
= fold, crease; la doblez = double dealing
- editorial: el editorial
= editorial (opinion article); la editorial = publishing business
- escucha: el
escucha = male sentry or guard; la escucha = female sentry or
guard, the act of listening
- final: el
final = end; la final = championship game in a tournament
- frente: el frente
= front; la frente = forehead
- guardia: el guardia
= policeman; la guardia = protection, custody, guard, police force,
policewoman
- guía: el guía
= male guide ; la guía = guidebook, female guide
- mañana: el mañana
= future; la mañana = morning
- margen: el margen
= margin; la margen = bank (as of a river)
- moral: el moral
= blackberry bush; la moral = morale, morality
- orden: el orden
= order (opposite of chaos); la orden = religious order
- ordenanza: el ordenanza
= order (opposite of chaos); la ordenanza = orderly
- papa: el papa
= pope; la papa = potato
- parte: el parte
= document; la parte = portion
- pendiente: el pendiente
= earring; la pendiente = slope
- pez: el pez =
fish; la pez = tar or pitch
- policía: el policía
= policeman; la policía = police force, policewoman
- radio: el
radio = radius, radium; la radio = radio (Note: In some areas, radio
is masculine in all uses.)
- tema: el tema
= subject; la tema = obsession
- terminal: el terminal
= electrical terminal; la terminal = shipping terminal
- trompeta: el trompeta
= male trumpeter; la trompeta = trumpet, female trumpeter
- vista: el
vista = male customs officer; la vista = view, female customs
officer
Spanish words that end with -o are masculine, and
words that end with -a
are feminine, right?
Well, almost always. But there are
exceptions — and knowing those exceptions can keep you from sounding silly.
Those exceptions fall into these
categories:
- Words that are shortened versions of other words.
For example, la
foto is feminine because it's short for la fotografía.
- Words that end in -ista as the equivalent of the English
"-ist." For example, dentista
can be either masculine or feminine depending on whether the dentist
referred to is a man or woman. A few words with other endings are treated
the same way. For example, modelo
can be either masculine or feminine when referring to a human model, but
masculine in other uses (such as when referring to a model airplane).
- Words whose meaning vary depending on the gender.
For example, in some areas, la
radio means "radio," while el radio means
"radius" or "radium." Sometimes la radio is used to refer to
the communications medium and el
radio for a radio set.
- Some masculine words that come from Greek end in -a (often -ma). Most of these
words have English cognates
- Words that are just exceptions.
Here is a list of the most common
exceptions to the "masculine o,
feminine a" rule:
el aroma — aroma
el Canadá — Canada
el clima — climate
el cólera — cholera (but la cólera, anger)
el cometa — comet (but la cometa, kite)
el cura
— priest (but la cura,
cure)
el día — day
el diagrama
— diagram
el dilema
— dilemma
el diploma
— diploma
la disco
— disco (short for la
discoteca)
el drama
— drama
el enigma
— enigma
el esquema
— outline, diagram
la foto
— photo (short for la
fotografía)
el guardia
— policeman or male guard (but la
guardia, vigilance)
el guía
— male guide (but la guía,
guidebook or female guide)
el idioma
— language
el idiota
— male idiot (but la
idiota, female idiot)
el indígena
— indigenous male (but la
indígena, indigenous female)
la mano
— hand
el mapa
— map
la modelo
— female model (but el
modelo, male model)
el morfema
— morpheme
la moto
— motorcycle (short for la
motocicleta)
el panorama
— panorama, outlook
el papa
— the pope (but la papa,
potato)
el poema
— poem
el policía
— policeman (but la
policía, police force or policewoman)
el planeta
— planet
el plasma
— plasma
el problema
— problem
el programa
— program
el quechua
— Quechua language
la radio
— radio (short for la
radiodifusión; but el
radio, radius or radium; usage of the feminine form depends on the
region)
el reuma, el reúma
— rheumatism
la reo
— female criminal (but el
reo, male criminal)
el síntoma
— symptom, sign
el sistema
— system
el sofá
— sofa
la soprano
— female soprano (but el
soprano, male soprano)
el tanga
— G-string
el telegrama
— telegram
el tema
— theme, subject
el teorema
— theorem
el tequila
— tequila (short for el
licor de Tequila)
la testigo
— female witness (but el
testigo, male witness)
el tranvía
— streetcar
Note: Most words that refer to people's jobs or roles, many
ending in -ista
or -eta, that
can be either masculine or feminine are not listed here. Most have English
cognates. Among the abundance of words that fit that category are el/la atleta (athlete), el/la artista (artist), el/la astronauta
(astronaut), el/la
dentista (dentist), el/la
comentarista (commentator), el/la
izquierdista (leftist or left-winger), el/la oficinista (office worker), el/la poeta (poet), el/la profeta (prophet),
and el/la turista
(tourist).
Second note: Also not included in this list are
combinations such as el
agua (water) — feminine words that begin with a stressed a- or ha- and are preceded by el in the singular form
only. Others are el águila
(eagle), el ama
(woman of the house) and el
alma (soul). But note that the normal rules are followed in the
plural form: las aguas,
las águilas, las amas and las almas. See the
lesson on substituting articulo la le
The infinitive is the most basic of the
verb forms. Unlike the conjugated verb forms — the ones used most often in
speech — an infinitive standing alone says nothing about how many people are
performing the verb's action or when.
In Spanish, the infinitive is the verb
form that appears in dictionaries. The infinitive always has one of three
endings: -ar, -er or -ir. Standing alone, the infinitive
is usually translated to English as "to" followed by the verb. For
example, ver is usually translated as "to see," hablar
as "to speak." But as we shall soon see, in sentences the Spanish
infinitive can be translated a number of ways.
In this lesson, we look at instances
where the infinitive functions as a noun. In other lessons linked to on this
page, we look at the ways that the infinitive functions with other verbs and
prepositions, sometimes in ways that are unlike the use of the infinitive in
English.
When used as a noun, the Spanish
infinitive is always masculine and almost always singular. Like other nouns, it
can be the subject of a sentence, a predicate nominative (usually a noun that
follows a form of "to be" or ser) or the object of a verb or
preposition. The infinitive noun sometimes retains the characteristics of a
verb; it sometimes is modified by an adverb rather than an adjective and can
sometimes have objects. It is often translated into the English gerund (the
"-ing" form of the verb). Here are some examples of the infinitive
being used as a noun:
- As a subject: Nadar
es el mejor remedio para el dolor de espalda. Swimming is the
best remedy for a backache.
- As a subject: Es prohibido
fumar. Smoking is prohibited. (Note: In Spanish, unlike
English, it isn't unusual for the subject to follow the verb of the
sentence.)
- As a subject: El beber
puede conducir a la intoxicación e incluso a la muerte. Drinking
can lead to poisoning and even death.
- As a subject: No me gusta cocinar.
I don't like to cook.(Note: Literally, the
sentence would be translated as "cooking doesn't please
me.")
- As a predicate
nominative:
La vida es un abrir y cerrar de los ojos. Life is an opening
and closing of the eyes.
- As a predicate
nominative:
La intimidad es un hablar honesto y profundo de lo que se siente
y se piensa. Intimacy
is speaking sincerely and deeply about what one feels and thinks.
- As the object of a verb: Yo preferiría salir. I would
prefer to leave.
- As the object of
a verb:
Odio estudiar algo que creo que no necesito. I hate studying
something I believe I don't need.
- As the object of a preposition: Pienso de salir contigo. I'm
thinking about leaving with you.
- As the object of
a preposition:
Ten moderación en el comer o el beber. Show
moderation in eating or drinking.
- As the object of
a preposition:
Al entrar al Sistema de Salud, usted y su empresa recibirán
enormes beneficios. Upon entering
the Health System, you and your business will receive great benefits.
As you may notice, the definite article el
(or the contraction al) is not consistently used with the noun
infinitive. It is most often used in certain set phrases and following some
prepositions. When an infinitive is the subject of the sentence, the el
is often optional; when it is used, it can give the sentence a more personal or
informal sound.
Note also that the translations given
above are not the only ones possible.
Nearly
all nouns in Spanish can be placed in one of two categories — masculine and
feminine. However, there are some words of ambiguous gender that don't fit
quite so neatly.
Of course, some words, such as names of
many occupations, are masculine when they refer to men and feminine when they
refer to women, as in el dentista for male dentist and la dentista
for female dentist. And there are some nouns whose meanings varY with gender.
However, there are also a number of words that, for whatever reason, haven't
been firmly established as being of one gender or the other.
Following is a list of the most common
of these words. Where just el or la appears before the word, it
is the gender that is viewed most widely as correct, and the gender that should
be learned by foreigners. Where both appear, either gender is widely accepted,
although the most commonly used gender is listed first. Where no gender is listed,
the usage depends on region.
la acné — acne
el anatema — anathema
el arte — art — The masculine is used when arte is
singular, but the feminine is often used in the plural, as in artes bellas
(fine arts).
el autoclave — sterilizer
el azúcar — sugar — Although azúcar is a
masculine word when standing alone, it is often used with feminine adjectives,
as in azúcar blanca (white sugar).
la babel — bedlam
el calor — heat — The feminine form is archaic.
la/el chinche — small insect
el cochambre — dirt
el color — color — The feminine form is archaic.
el cutis — complexion
la dote — talent
la duermevela — brief, light or interrupted sleep —
Compound nouns formed by joining a
third-person verb and a noun are nearly always masculine. However, the ending
apparently has influenced usage of this word toward the feminine.
el enema — enema
los herpes — herpes
la/el Internet — Internet — The general rule is that
nouns imported from other languages are masculine unless there's a reason for
making them feminine. In this case, the feminine is often used because the word
for a computer network (red) is feminine.
el interrogante — question
la Janucá — Hanukkah — Unlike the names of most
holidays, Janucá is usually used without a definite article.
el/la lente, los/las lentes —
lens, glasses
la libido — libido — Some authorities say that libido
and mano (hand) are the only Spanish nouns ending in -o, other
than shortened forms of longer words (such as foto for fotografía
and disco for discoteca, or occupational words, such as la
piloto for a female pilot), that are feminine. However, the word is often
treated as masculine.
la/el linde — boundary
el mar — sea — Mar is usually masculine, but it
becomes feminine in some weather and nautical usages (such as en alta mar,
on the high seas).
el/la mimbre — willow
la/el pelambre — thick hair
el/la prez — esteem, honor
la/el pringue — grease
radio — radio — When it means "radius" or
"radium," radio is invariably masculine. When it means
"radio," it is feminine in some areas (such as Spain), masculine in
others (such as Mexico).
el reuma — rheumatism
sartén — frying pan — The word is masculine in Spain,
feminine in much of Latin America.
la testuz — forehead of an animal
la tilde — tilde, accent mark
el tizne — soot, stain
el tortícolis — stiff neck
la treponema — type of bacteria — Like some other
words of limited medical usage, this word is feminine according to
dictionaries, but usually masculine in actual use.
el trípode — tripod
la/el web — web page, web site, World Wide Web —
This word may have entered the language as a shorter form of la página web
(web page), or it may be feminine because red (another word for the Web)
is feminine.
el yoga — yoga — Dictionaries list the word as masculine, but
the ending has led to some feminine usage.
Adjectives and Articles
Learn more about the words that are used to describe or point to nouns.
- Placement of Adjective
- Adjectives Whose Meanings Depend on Location
- Use and Omission of the Definite Article
- Words of Possession
- Saying "Any"
- Invariable Adjectives
- Mascline Adjectives Ending in "-A"
- "El" and "La" in Country Names
- Adjectival Present Participles
One of the first things you may be told when you start studying the Spanish adjective is that, unlike its English counterpart, it comes after the noun. But it doesn't take very much reading of Spanish to find out that the "rule" about word order is meant to be broken; it is actually quite common to place adjectives before nouns.
Certainly, adjectives — especially descriptive adjectives (ones that describe a quality of something) — usually come after nouns, and there are some cases where they must. But there are some adjectives that preferably come before the noun, and even a few whose meanings change depending on where they're placed.
Here are some of the different types of adjectives and where you will find them:
Colors: These come after the noun.
- Examples: La flor roja, the red flower; la Casa Blanca, the White House.
Adjectives indicating membership or classification: These include adjectives of nationality and various types of affiliation and nearly always come after the noun. Note that such adjectives aren't capitalized in Spanish.
- Examples: La mujer ecuatoriana, the Ecuadoran woman; el sacerdote católico, the Catholic priest; el restaurante japonés, the Japanese restaurant; el juez demócrata, the Democratic judge.
Adjectives modified by an adverb or phrase: These come after the noun.
- Examples: La taza llena de agua, the cup full of water; el libro muy interesante, the very interesting book; la computadora bastante buena, the quite good computer.
Multiple adjectives: When two or more adjectives of similar importance describe something, they go after the noun.
- Example: La casa grande y cara, the big and expensive house.
Adjectives of appreciation: By placing an adjective before the noun, you can sometimes indicate a certain amount of appreciation for that quality and/or a certain amount of emphasis. In English we sometimes do the same thing by using a word such as "really" or by a change in intonation.
- Examples: Es un músico bueno, he's a good musician; es un buen músico, he's a really good musician; la hermosa vista, the beautiful view; Hollywood, la ciudad de incontables películas, Hollywood, the city of countless movies.
Reinforcing adjectives: Adjectives that reinforce the meaning of the noun, such as adjectives that "go with" the accompanying noun, often are placed before the noun. In many cases, one might also say that the purpose of these adjectives is less for describing the noun that's modified and more for conveying some sort of an emotion to it.
- Examples: Una oscura noche, a dark night; el horrible monstruo, the horrible monster; la alta montaña, the high mountain; la blanca nieve, the white snow.
Nondescriptive adjectives: Many adjectives other than those that describe go before the noun.
- Examples: Pocos libros, few books; muchas palomas, many doves; mi casa, my house; esta mesa, this table; dos libros, two books. Sometimes these adjectives are known by other names, such as possessive pronouns and determiners.
Meaning-changing adjectives: Some adjectives change in meaning (or at least in English translation) depending on whether they're placed before or after the noun. Generally, the adjectives placed after nouns have an objective meaning or one that carries little or no emotional content, while one placed before the noun can indicate something about how the speaker feels toward the person or thing being described.
- Example: Mi viejo amigo, my longtime friend; mi amigo viejo, my elderly friend.
Generally, except for the meaning-changing adjectives, you won't go wrong by placing a descriptive adjective after the noun. However, as you examine Spanish writing or listen to the spoken language, you will develop a "feel" for those cases where you can or should place
Put an adjective before a noun or after the noun in Spanish, and usually it makes only a subtle difference, if any, in the meaning. But there are some cases where the placement of the adjective makes significant enough of a difference that we would translate it differently in English.
For an example, take the following two sentences: Tengo un viejo amigo. Tengo un amigo viejo. A "safe" translation of these two sentences would be fairly easy to come up with: "I have an old friend." But what does that mean? Does it mean that my friend is elderly? Or does it mean that the person has been a friend for a long time? It may surprise you to find out that in Spanish the sentences aren't so ambiguous, for viejo can be understood differently depending on where it is in relation to the noun that is described. Word order does make a difference. In this case, tengo un viejo amigo typically means "I have a longtime friend," and tengo un amigo viejo typically means "I have an elderly friend." Similarly, someone who has been a dentist for a long time is un viejo dentista, but a dentist who is old is un dentista viejo. Of course it is possible to be both — but in that case the word order will indicate what you're emphasizing. Viejo is far from the only adjective that functions that way, although the distinctions aren't nearly always as strong as they are with viejo. Here are examples of some of the more common such adjectives. Context still matters, and there may be exceptions, but these are guidelines to pay attention to:
- antiguo: la antigua silla, the old-fashioned chair; la silla antigua, the antique chair
- grande: un gran hombre, a great man; un hombre grande, a big man
- mismo: el mismo atleta, the same athlete; el atleta mismo, the athlete himself
- nuevo: el nuevo libro, the brand-new book, the newly acquired book; el libro nuevo, the newly made book
- pobre: esa pobre mujer, that poor woman (in the sense of being pitiful); esa mujer pobre, that woman who is poor
- propio: mis propios zapatos, my own shoes; mis zapatos propios, my appropriate shoes
- solo: un solo hombre, only one man; un hombre solo, a lonely man
- triste: un triste viaje, a dreadful trip; un viaje triste, a sad trip
- único: la única estudiante, the only student; la estudiante única, the unique student
You may notice a pattern above: When placed after a noun, the adjective tends to add a somewhat objective meaning, while placed before it often provides an emotional or subjective meaning. These meanings aren't always hard and fast and can depend to a certain extent on context. For example, antigua silla might also refer to a well-used chair or a chair with a long history. Some of the words also have other meanings; solo, for example, can also mean "alone." And in some cases, as with nuevo, placement can also be a matter of emphasis rather than simply of meaning. But this list does provide a guide that should be useful in helping determine the meaning of some double-meaning adjectives.
¿Hablas español? El español es la lengua de la Argentina. (Do you speak Spanish? Spanish is the language of Argentina.)
If you're paying attention or are particularly analytical about words, you may have noticed something about the words
el and
la — words usually translated as "the" — in the above sentences. In the first sentence,
español is used to translate "Spanish," but in the second sentence it's
el español. And
Argentina, a country name that stands alone in English, is preceded by
la in the Spanish sentence. These differences typify just a couple of the differences in how the definite article ("the" in English and usually
el,
la,
los or
las in Spanish) is used in the two languages. Using the definite article when you shouldn't or the other way around won't make you misunderstood very often, but using it correctly will make you sound like less of a foreigner.
The easy rule: Fortunately, although the rules of using the definite article can be complex, you have a head start if you speak English. That's because nearly any time you use "the" in English you can use the definite article in Spanish. Of course, there are exceptions. Here are the cases where Spanish doesn't use the definite article while English does:
- Before ordinal numbers for names of rulers and similar people. Luis octavo (Luis the Eighth), Carlos quinto (Carlos the Fifth).
- Some proverbs (or statements made in a proverbial fashion) omit the article. Camarón que se duerme, se lo lleva la corriente. (The shrimp that falls asleep gets carried away by the current.) Perro que ladra no muerde. (The dog that barks doesn't bite.)
- When used in nonrestrictive apposition, the article is often omitted. This usage can best be explained by example. Vivo en Las Vegas, ciudad que no duerme. (I live in Las Vegas, the city that doesn't sleep.) In this case, ciudad que no duerme is in apposition to Las Vegas. The clause is said to be nonrestrictive because it doesn't define which Las Vegas; it only provides additional information. The article isn't used. But Vivo en Washington, el estado. Here, el estado is in apposition to Washington, and it defines which Washington (it "restricts" Washington), so the article is used. Conozco a Julio Iglesias, cantante famoso. (I know Julio Iglesias, the famous singer.) In this sentence, presumably both the person speaking and any listeners know who Iglesias is, so the phrase in apposition (cantante famoso) doesn't tell who he is (it doesn't "restrict"), it merely provides additional information. The definite article isn't needed. But Escogí a Bob Smith, el médico. (I chose Bob Smith, the doctor.) The listener doesn't know who Bob Smith is, and el médico serves to define him ("restrict" him). The definite article would be used.
- In certain set phrases that don't follow any particular pattern. Examples: A largo plazo (in the long run), en alta mar (on the high seas).
Far more common are cases where you don't use the article in English but you need it in Spanish. Following are the most common such uses. Keep in mind that there are some regional variations and exceptions. But this list should include most of the instances you will come across.
Days of the week: Days of the week typically are preceded by either
el or
los, depending on whether the day is singular or plural (the names of the weekdays don't change in the plural form).
Voy a la tienda el jueves. (I'm going to the store on Thursday.)
Voy a la tienda los jueves. (I go to the store on Thursdays.) The article isn't used following a form of the verb
ser to indicate which day of the week it is.
Hoy es lunes. (Today is Monday.)
Seasons of the year: Seasons normally need the definite article, although it is optional after
de,
en or a form of
ser.
Prefiero los inviernos. (I prefer winters.)
No quiero asistir a la escuela de verano. (I don't want to go to the summer school.)
With more than one noun: In English, we can often omit the "the" when using two or more nouns joined by "and" or "or," as the article is understood to apply to both. That's not so in Spanish.
El hermano y la hermana están tristes. (The brother and sister are sad.)
Vendemos la casa y la silla. (We're selling the house and chair.)
With generic nouns: These are nouns that refer to a concept or to a substance in general or a member of a class in general, rather than a specific one (where the article would be required in both languages).
No preferiría el despotismo. (I wouldn't prefer despotism.)
Esto es la realidad de la vida. (This is the reality of life.)
El trigo es nutritivo. (Wheat is nutritious.)
Los americanos son ricos. (Americans are rich.)
Los derechistas no deben votar. (Right-wingers ought not to vote.)
Escogí la cristianidad. (I chose Christianity.)
Exception: The article is often omitted after the preposition
de, especially when the noun following
de serves to describe the first noun and doesn't refer to a specific person or thing.
Los zapatos de hombres (men's shoes), but
los zapatos de los hombres (the shoes of the men).
Dolor de muela (toothache in general), but
dolor de la muela (a toothache in a particular tooth).
With names of languages: Names of languages require the article except when they immediately follow
en or a verb that is often used of languages (particularly
saber,
aprender, and
hablar, and sometimes
entender,
escribir or
estudiar). The article also is required after an adverb or a preposition other than
en.
Hablo español. (I speak Spanish.)
Hablo bien el español. (I speak Spanish well.)
Prefiero el inglés. (I prefer English.)
Aprendemos inglés. (We are learning English.)
With clothing, body parts and other personal items: It is very common to use the definite article in Spanish in cases where a possessive adjective (such as "your") would be used in English. Examples:
¡Abre los ojos! (Open your eyes!)
Perdió los zapatos. (He lost his shoes.)
With infinitives used as subjects: El entender es difícil. (Understanding is difficult.)
El fumar está prohibido. (Smoking is prohibited.)
Before the names of some countries: The
names of some countries, and a few cities, are preceded by the definite article. In some cases it's mandatory or nearly so (
el Reino Unido,
la India), while in other cases it's optional but common (
el Canadá,
la China). Even if a country isn't on the list, the article is used if the country is modified by an adjective.
Voy a México. (I'm going to Mexico.) But,
voy al México bello. (I'm going to beautiful Mexico.) The article is also commonly used before the names of mountains:
el Everest,
el Fuji.
Before names of streets: Streets, avenues, plazas and similar places are usually preceded by the article.
La Casa Blanca está en la avenida Pennsylvania. (The White House is on Pennsylvania Avenue.)
With personal titles: The article is used before most personal titles when talking about people, but not when talking to them.
El señor Smith está en casa. (Mr. Smith is at home.) But,
hola, señor Smith (hello, Mr. Smith
). La doctora Jones asistió a la escuela. (Dr. Jones attended the school.) But,
doctora Jones, ¿como está? (Dr. Jones, how are you?)
La is also often used when speaking about a famous woman using her last name only.
La Spacek durmió aquí. (Spacek slept here.)
In certain set phrases: Many of these involve places.
En el espacio (in space),
en la televisión (on television).
-------------------
Adjectives
and Articles
Learn more about the words that are used to
describe or point to nouns.
One of the first things you may be told
when you start studying the Spanish adjective is that, unlike its English
counterpart, it comes after the noun. But it doesn't take very much reading of
Spanish to find out that the "rule" about word order is meant to be
broken; it is actually quite common to place adjectives before nouns.
Certainly, adjectives — especially
descriptive adjectives (ones that describe a quality of something) — usually
come after nouns, and there are some cases where they must. But there are some
adjectives that preferably come before the noun, and even a few whose meanings
change depending on where they're placed.
Here are some of the different types of
adjectives and where you will find them:
Colors: These come after the noun.
- Examples: La flor roja, the red
flower; la Casa
Blanca, the White House.
Adjectives
indicating membership or classification: These include adjectives of nationality and various
types of affiliation and nearly always come after the noun. Note that such
adjectives aren't capitalized in Spanish.
- Examples: La mujer ecuatoriana, the
Ecuadoran woman; el sacerdote católico, the
Catholic priest; el restaurante japonés, the
Japanese restaurant; el juez demócrata, the
Democratic judge.
Adjectives
modified by an adverb or phrase: These
come after the noun.
- Examples: La taza llena de agua, the cup
full of water; el libro muy
interesante, the very
interesting book; la computadora bastante buena, the quite good computer.
Multiple
adjectives: When two or more adjectives of similar
importance describe something, they go after the noun.
- Example: La casa grande y cara, the big and
expensive house.
Adjectives
of appreciation: By placing an adjective
before the noun, you can sometimes indicate a certain amount of appreciation
for that quality and/or a certain amount of emphasis. In English we sometimes
do the same thing by using a word such as "really" or by a change in
intonation.
- Examples: Es un músico bueno, he's a good
musician; es un buen
músico, he's a really good musician; la hermosa vista, the beautiful view; Hollywood, la ciudad de incontables películas, Hollywood, the city of countless movies.
Reinforcing
adjectives: Adjectives that reinforce the meaning of
the noun, such as adjectives that "go with" the accompanying noun,
often are placed before the noun. In many cases, one might also say that the
purpose of these adjectives is less for describing the noun that's modified and
more for conveying some sort of an emotion to it.
- Examples: Una oscura noche, a dark
night; el horrible
monstruo, the horrible monster; la alta montaña, the high mountain; la blanca nieve, the white
snow.
Nondescriptive
adjectives: Many adjectives other than those that
describe go before the noun.
- Examples: Pocos libros, few books; muchas
palomas, many doves; mi casa, my house; esta mesa, this table; dos libros, two books.
Sometimes these adjectives are known by other names, such as possessive
pronouns and determiners.
Meaning-changing
adjectives: Some adjectives change in meaning (or at
least in English translation) depending on whether they're placed before or
after the noun. Generally, the adjectives placed after nouns have an objective
meaning or one that carries little or no emotional content, while one placed
before the noun can indicate something about how the speaker feels toward the
person or thing being described.
- Example: Mi viejo amigo, my longtime
friend; mi amigo
viejo, my elderly friend.
Generally, except for the meaning-changing
adjectives, you won't go wrong by placing a descriptive adjective after the
noun. However, as you examine Spanish writing or listen to the spoken language,
you will develop a "feel" for those cases where you can or should
place adjectives ahead of the noun.
Placement of Some Adjectives Can Affect
Their Meaning
Adjectives in Front Often Have More
Put an
adjective before a noun or after the noun in Spanish, and usually it makes only
a subtle difference, if any, in the meaning. But there are some cases where the
placement of the adjective makes significant enough of a difference that we
would translate it differently in English.
For an example, take the following two
sentences: Tengo un viejo amigo. Tengo un amigo viejo. A
"safe" translation of these two sentences would be fairly easy to
come up with: "I have an old friend." But what does that mean? Does
it mean that my friend is elderly? Or does it mean that the person has been a
friend for a long time?
It may surprise you to find out that in
Spanish the sentences aren't so ambiguous, for viejo can be understood
differently depending on where it is in relation to the noun that is described.
Word order does make a difference. In this case, tengo un viejo amigo
typically means "I have a longtime friend," and tengo un amigo
viejo typically means "I have an elderly friend." Similarly,
someone who has been a dentist for a long time is un viejo dentista, but
a dentist who is old is un dentista viejo. Of course it is possible to
be both — but in that case the word order will indicate what you're
emphasizing.
Viejo is far from the only adjective that functions that way,
although the distinctions aren't nearly always as strong as they are with viejo.
Here are examples of some of the more common such adjectives. Context still
matters, and there may be exceptions, but these are guidelines to pay attention
to:
- antiguo: la antigua silla, the old-fashioned chair; la
silla antigua, the antique chair
- grande: un gran hombre, a great man;
un hombre grande, a big man
- mismo: el mismo
atleta, the same athlete; el atleta mismo, the athlete himself
- nuevo: el nuevo libro, the brand-new book, the
newly acquired book; el libro nuevo, the newly made book
- pobre: esa pobre mujer, that poor woman (in the
sense of being pitiful); esa mujer pobre, that woman who is poor
- propio: mis propios zapatos, my own shoes; mis
zapatos propios, my appropriate shoes
- solo: un solo
hombre, only one man; un hombre solo, a lonely man
- triste: un triste
viaje, a dreadful trip; un viaje triste, a sad trip
- único: la única
estudiante, the only student; la estudiante única, the unique
student
You may notice a pattern above: When placed
after a noun, the adjective tends to add a somewhat objective meaning, while
placed before it often provides an emotional or subjective meaning.
These meanings aren't always hard and fast
and can depend to a certain extent on context. For example, antigua silla
might also refer to a well-used chair or a chair with a long history. Some of
the words also have other meanings; solo, for example, can also mean
"alone." And in some cases, as with nuevo, placement can also
be a matter of emphasis rather than simply of meaning. But this list does
provide a guide that should be useful in helping determine the meaning of some
double-meaning adjectives.
Use and Omission of the Definite Article
Part 1: When the Article Is Omitted
¿Hablas español? El español
es la lengua de la Argentina. (Do you speak Spanish? Spanish is the language of Argentina.)
If you're paying attention or are
particularly analytical about words, you may have noticed something about the
words el and la — words usually translated as "the" —
in the above sentences. In the first sentence, español is used to
translate "Spanish," but in the second sentence it's el español.
And Argentina, a country name that stands alone in English, is preceded
by la in the Spanish sentence.
These differences typify just a couple of
the differences in how the definite article ("the" in English and
usually el, la, los or las in Spanish) is used in
the two languages. Using the definite article when you shouldn't or the other
way around won't make you misunderstood very often, but using it correctly will
make you sound like less of a foreigner.
The easy rule: Fortunately, although the rules of using the definite
article can be complex, you have a head start if you speak English. That's
because nearly any time you use "the" in English you can use the
definite article in Spanish. Of course, there are exceptions. Here are the
cases where Spanish doesn't use the definite article while English does:
- Before ordinal numbers for names of rulers and similar people. Luis octavo (Luis the
Eighth), Carlos quinto (Carlos the Fifth).
- Some proverbs (or statements made in a proverbial fashion) omit the article. Camarón
que se duerme, se lo lleva la corriente. (The shrimp that falls asleep
gets carried away by the current.) Perro que ladra no muerde. (The
dog that barks doesn't bite.)
- When used in nonrestrictive apposition, the article is often omitted. This usage
can best be explained by example. Vivo en Las Vegas, ciudad que no
duerme. (I live in Las Vegas, the city that doesn't sleep.) In this
case, ciudad que no duerme is in apposition to Las Vegas.
The clause is said to be nonrestrictive because it doesn't define which
Las Vegas; it only provides additional information. The article isn't
used. But Vivo en Washington, el estado. Here, el estado is
in apposition to Washington, and it defines which Washington
(it "restricts" Washington), so the article is used. Conozco a
Julio Iglesias, cantante famoso. (I know Julio Iglesias, the famous
singer.) In this sentence, presumably both the person
speaking and any listeners know who Iglesias is, so the phrase in
apposition (cantante famoso) doesn't tell who he is (it doesn't
"restrict"), it merely provides additional information. The
definite article isn't needed. But Escogí a Bob Smith, el médico.
(I chose Bob Smith, the doctor.) The listener doesn't know who Bob Smith
is, and el médico serves to define him ("restrict" him).
The definite article would be used.
- In certain set phrases that don't follow any particular pattern. Examples: A largo plazo
(in the long run), en alta mar (on the high seas).
Use and Omission of the Definite Article
Part 2: When the Article Is Added
Far more
common are cases where you don't use the article in English but you need it in
Spanish. Following are the most common such uses. Keep in mind that there are
some regional variations and exceptions. But this list should include most of
the instances you will come across.
Days of the week: Days of the week typically are preceded by either el
or los, depending on whether the day is singular or plural (the names of
the weekdays don't change in the plural form). Voy a la tienda el jueves.
(I'm going to the store on Thursday.) Voy a la tienda los jueves. (I go
to the store on Thursdays.) The article isn't used following a form of the verb
ser to indicate which day of the week it is. Hoy es lunes. (Today
is Monday.)
Seasons of the year: Seasons normally need the definite article, although it
is optional after de, en or a form of ser. Prefiero
los inviernos. (I prefer winters.) No quiero asistir a la escuela de verano.
(I don't want to go to the summer school.)
With more than one noun: In English, we can often omit the "the" when using
two or more nouns joined by "and" or "or," as the article
is understood to apply to both. That's not so in Spanish. El hermano y la
hermana están tristes. (The brother and sister are sad.) Vendemos la
casa y la silla. (We're selling the house and chair.)
With generic nouns: These are nouns that refer to a concept or to a
substance in general or a member of a class in general, rather than a specific
one (where the article would be required in both languages). No
preferiría el despotismo. (I wouldn't prefer despotism.) Esto
es la realidad de la vida. (This is
the reality of life.) El trigo es nutritivo. (Wheat is nutritious.) Los
americanos son ricos. (Americans are rich.) Los derechistas no deben
votar. (Right-wingers ought not to vote.) Escogí la cristianidad. (I
chose Christianity.) Exception: The article is often omitted after the
preposition de, especially when the noun following de serves to
describe the first noun and doesn't refer to a specific person or thing. Los
zapatos de hombres (men's shoes), but los zapatos de los hombres (the shoes
of the men). Dolor de muela (toothache in general), but dolor de la muela (a
toothache in a particular tooth).
With names of languages: Names of languages require the article except when they
immediately follow en or a verb that is often used of languages
(particularly saber, aprender, and hablar, and sometimes entender,
escribir or estudiar). The article also is required after an
adverb or a preposition other than en. Hablo español. (I
speak Spanish.) Hablo bien el español. (I speak Spanish well.)
Prefiero el inglés. (I
prefer English.) Aprendemos inglés. (We are learning English.)
With clothing, body parts and other
personal items: It is very common
to use the definite article in Spanish in cases where a possessive adjective
(such as "your") would be used in English. Examples:
¡Abre los ojos! (Open your eyes!) Perdió los zapatos. (He lost his shoes.)
With infinitives used as subjects: El entender es difícil. (Understanding is
difficult.) El fumar está prohibido. (Smoking is prohibited.)
Before the names of some countries: The names
of some countries, and a few cities, are preceded by the definite
article. In some cases it's mandatory or nearly so (el Reino Unido, la
India), while in other cases it's optional but common (el Canadá, la
China). Even if a country isn't on the list, the article is used if the
country is modified by an adjective. Voy a México. (I'm
going to Mexico.) But, voy al México bello. (I'm going to beautiful Mexico.) The article is also
commonly used before the names of mountains: el Everest, el Fuji.
Before names of streets: Streets, avenues, plazas and similar places are usually
preceded by the article. La Casa Blanca está en la avenida Pennsylvania.
(The White House is on Pennsylvania Avenue.)
With personal titles: The article is used before most personal titles when
talking about people, but not when talking to them. El señor Smith está en
casa. (Mr. Smith is at home.) But, hola, señor Smith
(hello, Mr. Smith). La doctora Jones asistió a la escuela. (Dr. Jones attended the school.) But, doctora Jones,
¿como está? (Dr. Jones, how are you?) La is also often used when
speaking about a famous woman using her last name only. La Spacek durmió
aquí. (Spacek slept here.)
Indicating Possession
English Possessive Form Has No Single Spanish Equivalent
Many of
the structural details of the English language — the parts of speech,
punctuation, and even the addition of "s" or "es" to make
words plural — have correlating structures in Spanish. But one common structure
— the addition of "'s" to indicate the possessive case — does not. So
if you are going to indicate possession in Spanish, here are the ways you can
do it:
Possessive determiners
Possessive
determiners are a type of adjective, the equivalent of such English words as
"my" and "your." Like other adjectives, they need to match
the noun they refer to in number and gender. Here are the possessive
determiners of Spanish along with a sample sentence for each:
- Mi, mis (my, mine): Mi
gato es muy peludo. My cat is very hairy.
- Tu, tus (your): ¡Tus
hijas y yo te necesitamos! Your daughters and I need you!
- Su, sus (your, his,
her, their): Su casa es su mayor inversión. Your (his, her, their) house is your (his, her, their) major investment.
- Nuestro,
nuestra, nuestros, nuestras (our): ¿Hay limpieza étnica en nuestro
país? Is there ethnic cleansing in our country?
- Vuestro,
vuestra, vuestros, vuestras (your): Me interesaría saber más
sobre vuestro perro. I would be
interested to know more about your dog. (The forms of vuestro are
seldom used in most of Latin America.)
Using de
If you
are using a name or noun to refer to the person or entity that is in
possession, the prepositional phrase of de followed by the noun is used,
as in el libro de Juan, John's book. A few examples:
- Ver el perfil de
Pablo.
See Pablo's profile.
- Él no cree en
el movimiento de mujeres. He doesn't believe in the women's movement.
- Es la madre de
la estudiante. She is the
student's mother.
It similarly is possible to indicate
possession by using de followed by a pronoun, such as in de él,
but such usage is somewhat uncommon except when the use of a determiner would
be ambiguous in the context. For example, if su libro ("his, her,
your or their book") would be ambiguous, we could say el libro de él
or el libro de ella ("his book" or "her book").
Possessive pronouns and long-form adjectives
Lesson
common are the long form of possessive adjectives, which may be used as
pronouns. These forms are as follows:
- mío, mía,
míos, mías
(my, mine)
- tuyo, tuya,
tuyos, tuyas
(your, yours)
- suyo, suya,
suyos, suyas
(my, mine)
- nuestro,
nuestra, nuestros, nuestras (our, ours)
- vuestro, vuestra, vuestros, vuestras (your, yours; this plural familiar form is seldom
used in Latin America)
When these forms are used as adjectives,
they follow the noun being referred to. Whether used as pronouns or adjectives,
they must match the noun being referred to (the thing being possessed) in
number and gender.
Note that these forms are used far less commonly
than the other forms listed above. Here are some examples of these words in
use.
- El coche mío
consume mucha gasolina. My car consumes much gasoline.
- La cama roja
es mía.
The red bed is mine.
- Las
computadoras no son mías, son tuyas. The computers aren't mine, they're yours.
Saying 'Any' in Spanish
Word Can Often Be Omitted in Translation
The
English word "any" has no single equivalent in Spanish, and it can
often be left untranslated. Following are some of the most common ways you can
express the idea of "any." Note that in most cases, the ways listed
aren't the only possibilities:
When "any" can be omitted in
English: In many cases, "any" as an
adjective is superfluous, adding little independent meaning and having the
ability to be omitted without much change in how the sentence is understood.
Under those circumstances, and especially in questions, the word can usually be
left untranslated in the Spanish equivalent. Some examples:
- If you have (any) additional questions about
this product, you can check the label. Si tienes preguntas adicionales
sobre este producto, puedes consultar la etiqueta.
- Are there (any) books about the National
Museum in English? ¿Hay libros sobre el Museo Nacional en inglés?
- If we don't make (any) progress this week, a
huge job will be left for us next week. Si no hacemos progresos esta
semana, nos quedará una tarea monumental para la semana próxima.
- Do you want (any) more carrots? ¿Quieres
más zanahorias?
- I don't feel (any) pain. No siento dolor.
"Any" in negative sentences: In negative sentences, "any" can
often be translated as ninguno, which varies according to number and
gender. Note that ninguno is shortened to ningún when it comes
before a singular masculine noun. Like "any," ninguno and its
variations can function as both adjectives and pronouns. Keep in mind that
double negatives are common and acceptable in Spanish. In cases where ninguno
can be omitted (as in the final example from the previous section), its use
adds emphasis.
- If you don't have any of these documents, you
can submit one of the following. Si no tiene ninguno de estos
documentos, puede someter uno de los siguientes.
- I don't see any advantages for the citizens. No veo ningunas
ventajas para los ciudadanos.
- I don't feel any pain. No siento ningún
dolor.
When "any" means
"whatever": When "any" is used to mean that a variety of choices will do,
you can use cualquiera, which is shortened to cualquier when used
as an adjective before a noun (either masculine or feminine). The plural form, cualesquiera,
is usually not used where the same idea can be expressed using the singular.
- I am looking for any Harry Potter book. Busco cualquier
libro de Harry Potter.
- Any mother can
distinguish her child from all other children. Cualquier madre puede
distinguir a su hijo de todos los demás niños.
- "Which meal do you want to eat?" "Any
one. It doesn't matter." —¿Qué comida quieres comer? —Cualquiera.
No importa.
- It is absolutely prohibited to provide syringes or
hypodermic needles in any way. Es absolutamente prohibido
suministrar de cualquier modo jeringuillas o agujas hipodérmicas.
Invariable Adjectives
I learnt
at university and from all the grammar books I can find on the subject that
adjectives which are nouns, such as naranja and rosa, are
invariable, and that you should say, e.g. coches naranja, pantalones
rosa, or otherwise coches color naranja, pantalones color rosa,
etc. However, some Spanish people tell me that it is quite acceptable to say coches
naranjas, etc. Are they wrong, or is it a regional thing, or has it now
become acceptable? I teach Spanish, I love the Spanish language, and I find
grammar fascinating — I want to make sure I am teaching my pupils correct
usage.
The short answer is that there is a variety
of ways of saying "orange cars," and that both coches naranjas
and coches naranja are among them.
In traditionally correct usage, naranja
or rosa as an adjective of color should remain unchanged, even when
modifying a plural noun. However, Spanish (like all living languages) is
changing, and in some areas, especially in Latin America, a construction such
as los coches rosas would be perfectly acceptable and even preferable.
You are right in stating the rule: Invariable adjectives (usually a noun being
used as an adjective) don't change form regardless of whether they're
describing something that is singular or plural. There aren't many such
adjectives, the most common being macho (male) and hembra
(female), so it is possible to talk about, for example, las jirafas macho,
the male giraffes, and las jirafas hembra, the female giraffes.
Generally, the invariable adjectives are
that way because they are thought of as nouns (as are la hembra and el
macho), and they include the colors that come from names of things; esmeralda
(emerald), mostaza (mustard), naranja (orange), paja
(straw), rosa (rose) and turquesa (turquoise) are among them. In
fact, as in English, almost anything can become a color if it makes sense to do
so. So café (coffee) and chocolate can be colors, as can oro
(gold) and cereza (cherry). In some areas, even the expression color
de hormiga (ant-colored) can be used as a way to say something is ugly.
There are a variety of ways these nouns can
be used as colors. Probably the most common, as you said, is along the lines of
la bicicleta color cereza for "the cherry-colored bicycle."
That's short for la bicicleta de color de cereza. Saying la bicicleta
cereza is a way of shortening it even more. So the logic of saying las
bicicletas cereza for "the cherry-colored bicycles" is that we're
using a shortened form of las bicicletas de color de cereza. Or at least
that might be an easier way to think about it than thinking about cereza
as an invariable adjective.
So to use your example, los coches
naranja would be entirely proper, although some variation of los coches
(de) color (de) naranja might be more common in actual usage, again
depending on the area.
What can happen over time, however, is that
a noun used in this way can come to be thought of as an adjective, and once
it's thought of as an adjective it probably will change form for plurals (and
possibly gender). In Latin America, especially, some of these words
(particularly naranja, rosa and violeta) are treated as
typical adjectives that change in number. So referring to los coches naranjas
would also be correct. (It should be noted that in some areas the adjective anaranjado
also is frequently used for "orange").
A final note on invariable adjectives: As indicated above, macho and hembra are
probably the common traditionally invariable adjectives (although you will
often hear them made plural, perhaps more often than not). Others of more
recent use include monstruo (monster) and modelo (model).
Almost all of the other invariable
adjectives you'll come across are either proper names (such as Wright in
los hermanos Wright, "the Wright brothers," or Burger King
in los restaurantes Burger King) or adjectives borrowed from foreign
languages. Examples of the latter include web as in las páginas web
for "the web pages" and sport as in los coches sport
for "the sports cars."
Why Do Some Masculine Adjectives End in
'-a'?
Not All Adjectives Follow Usual Pattern
Question: I came across a simple phrase that I
thought at first was simple! It was un cerdo rosa. A pink pig. Why does
the color end in an a? I thought it was a feminine color? I notice
"pig" has a masculine article and the pig is a male.
Answer: Rosa only looks feminine. In this case it's
really a masculine adjective.
It's true that the vast majority of
adjectives ending in -a are a feminine form of an adjective ending in -o
or, less often, some other ending. But there are a few adjectives that end in -a
in their "natural" state (i.e., in their singular, masculine form),
and they don't change with the gender of the noun they describe.
As you might have guessed, rosa is
one of those. We say la flor rosa for "the pink flower," but
we also say el carro rosa for "the pink car."
Of the adjectives that naturally end in -a,
and there are very few, most of them are (like rosa) derived from nouns.
They include homicida (homicidal), hipócrita (hypocritical), and suicida
(suicidal). Some adjectives of nationality, such as croata (Croat), also
end in -a and are used with both males and females.
Probably the most important adjective that
naturally ends in -a is cada, meaning "each." E.g., cada
hombre debe salir, each man ought to leave.
If you're wondering whether an adjective
ending in -a is feminine, look it up in a dictionary. Dictionary
listings for nouns and adjectives are in the singular masculine form.
Using 'El' and 'La' With Country Names
Some Require Use of the Definite Article
By Gerald
Erichs
Question: Why are el and la used with
the names of some countries and not others? Is there some way to know which one
to use?
Answer: If there's a pattern to be found in which article
precedes the names of countries, or even if one is used, I haven't discovered
it. It's one of those aspects of the language that you either need to memorize
or pick up as you learn the names of the countries and hear them used.
Fortunately, however, there aren't a lot of
countries where the article is used, and even then with a few exceptions (particularly
la India, El Salvador and la República Dominicana) its use isn't
mandatory. So while you can say el Brasil to refer to Brazil, Brasil
by itself will also do just fine most of the time. The article seems to be used
more often in speech than in contemporary writing (where, for example, Estados
Unidos is frequently referred to without the article).
Following are the most common countries and
other geographic units that you'll hear or see used with the article. Names
where the article is mandatory or close to it are shown in boldface:
la Arabia Saudita (Saudi Arabia)
la Argentina
el Brasil (Brazil)
El Cairo
el Camerún (Cameroon)
el Canadá
la China
el Cuzco (city in Peru)
el Ecuador
los Estados Unidos (the United States)
las Filipinas (the Philippines)
la Florida
la Habana (Havana)
La Haya (The Hague)
la India
el Irak (Iraq)
el Irán
el Japón (Japan)
el Líbano (Lebanon)
La Meca (Mecca)
el Nepal
los Países Bajos (the Netherlands)
el Pakistán
el Paraguay
el Perú
el Reino Unido (the United Kingdom)
la República Dominicana
El Salvador
el Senegal
la Somalia
el Sudán
el Tibet
el Uruguay
el Vietnam
el Yemen
Remember also that the article commonly is
used before the name of any country if you are modifying it with an adjective
or a prepositional phrase. For example, soy de España
("I'm from Spain"), but soy de la España hermosa ("I'm
from beautiful Spain"). Similarly, México es interesante
("Mexico is interesting"), but el México del siglo XVI era
interesante, "16th-century Mexico was interesting."
Spanish's "Other" Present
Participle
Adjectival Participles Sometimes Used to Translate '-ing'
Adjectives
By Gerald
Erichsen
When
most people think of present participles in Spanish (if they think about them
at all!), they usually think of verb forms ending in -ando or -endo.
They are the most common verb equivalents of the English present participle,
which typically ends in "-ing."
However, there is another type of present
participle in Spanish, and those are the adjectives ending in -ante and -ente
that are derived from verbs, such as andante (walking) and picante
(spicy hot, from picar, to bite or sting).
If you've studied much French or Italian,
you can see the similarity with the present participles of those languages
(which end in -ant and -ent in French and -ante, -anti,
-ente and -enti in Italian). By definition, participles are words
that can have the characteristics of both verbs and adjectives. That's still
true of the present participles in French and Italian, but in Spanish the -ante
and -ente words function just like other adjectives, so in Spanish not
all grammar experts classify them as participles. When they do, they usually
call them adjectival present participles to distinguish them from the more
common kind. (Also note that like most other adjectives, these can be made into
nouns. Common examples include estudiante, student, and visitante,
visitor.)
Like -ando and -endo words,
the adjectival participles are frequently the equivalent of English
"-ing" adjectives. Thus Sleeping Beauty is known as Bella
Durmiente (from dormir, to sleep) in Spanish, and laughing gas is
known as gas hilarante (from hilar, to spin). In a few cases,
compound words are formed using these forms; for example, a person who is
Spanish-speaking can be described as hispanohablante (from hablar,
to speak).
These adjectival forms are formed by
dropping the verb ending (-ar, -er or -ir) and adding -ante
to the stem of the -ar verbs and -ente or -iente to the
stems of -er and -ir verbs. There are no fixed rules for
determining which of the two suffixes are used with -er and -ir
verbs. Also, especially in the case of irregular -ir verbs, the stem of
the verbs can also change (as in durmiente).
Here are some sample phrases and sentences
showing how these adjectives are used and correspond with the English present
participle (sometimes called a gerund):
- la páginas siguientes, the following pages
- Fuimos a la
ciudad durmiente. We went to the sleeping city.
- el presidente saliente, the outgoing president (i.e., leaving
office)
- Se necesita
agua para la población creciente. Water is needed for a growing population.
- una asombrante
variedad,
an amazing variety
- Es un plan de
estudios conduciente al título. It is a curriculum leading to the degree.
- El instrumento
produce un sonido vibrante. The instrument produces a vibrating sound.
- los españoles pertenecientes al partido, the Spaniards belonging to the party
- la población comprante, the buying
public
- los datos determinantes, the determining data
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